Development of the Parent-Rated Anxiety Scale for Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Anxiety is common in youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). There is no accepted outcome measure for anxiety in this population. METHOD: Following a series of focus groups with parents of youth with ASD, we generated 72 items (scored 0-3). Parents of 990 youth with ASD (aged 5-17 years; 80.8% male) completed an online survey. Factor analysis and item response theory analyses reduced the content to a single factor with 25 items. Youth with at least mild anxiety (n = 116; aged 5-17 years; 79.3% male) participated in a comprehensive clinical assessment to evaluate the validity and reliability of the 25-item Parent-Rated Anxiety Scale for ASD (PRAS-ASD). RESULTS: In the online sample, the mean PRAS-ASD score was 29.04 ± 14.9 (range, 0-75). The coefficient α was 0.93. The item response theory results indicated excellent reliability across a wide range of scores with low standard errors. In the clinical sample (n = 116), the PRAS-ASD mean was 31.0 ± 15.6 (range, 1-65). Pearson correlations with parent ratings of ASD symptom severity, repetitive behavior, and disruptive behavior ranged 0.33 to 0.66, supporting divergent validity of the PRAS-ASD. Pearson correlation with a parent-rated measure of anxiety used in the general pediatric population of 0.83 supported convergent validity. A total of 40 participants (32 boys, 8 girls; mean age, 11.9 ± 3.4 years) returned at time 2 (mean, 12.2 days) and time 3 (mean, 24.2 days). Intraclass correlation showed test-retest reliabilities of 0.88 and 0.86 at time 2 and time 3, respectively. CONCLUSION: The 25-item PRAS-ASD is a reliable and valid scale for measuring anxiety in youth with ASD.

Two organizing principles of vocal production: Implications for nonhuman and human primates.

Vocal communication in nonhuman primates receives considerable research attention, with many investigators arguing for similarities between this calling and speech in humans. Data from development and neural organization show a central role of affect in monkey and ape sounds, however, suggesting that their calls are homologous to spontaneous human emotional vocalizations while having little relation to spoken language. Based on this evidence, we propose two principles that can be useful in evaluating the many and disparate empirical findings that bear on the nature of vocal production in nonhuman and human primates. One principle distinguishes production-first from reception-first vocal development, referring to the markedly different role of auditory-motor experience in each case. The second highlights a phenomenon dubbed dual neural pathways, specifically that when a species with an existing vocal system evolves a new functionally distinct vocalization capability, it occurs through emergence of a second parallel neural pathway rather than through expansion of the extant circuitry. With these principles as a backdrop, we review evidence of acoustic modification of calling associated with background noise, conditioning effects, audience composition, and vocal convergence and divergence in nonhuman primates. Although each kind of evidence has been interpreted to show flexible cognitively mediated control over vocal production, we suggest that most are more consistent with affectively grounded mechanisms. The lone exception is production of simple, novel sounds in great apes, which is argued to reveal at least some degree of volitional vocal control. If also present in early hominins, the cortically based circuitry surmised to be associated with these rudimentary capabilities likely also provided the substrate for later emergence of the neural pathway allowing volitional production in modern humans.

Rhythmic oscillations in quantitative EEG measured during a continuous performance task.

The objective of the present investigation was to determine if cyclic variations in human performance recorded during a 30 min continuous performance task would parallel cyclic variations in right-hemisphere beta-wave activity. A fast fourier transformation was performed on the quantitative electroencephalogram (qEEG) and the performance record of each participant (N = 62), producing an individual periodogram for each outcome measure. An average periodogram was then produced for both qEEG and performance by combining (averaging) the amplitudes associated with each periodicity in the 62 original periodograms. Periodicities ranging from 1.00 to 2.00 min and from 4.70 to 5.70 min with amplitudes greater than would be expected due to chance were retained (Smith et al. 2003). The results of the present investigation validate the existence of cyclic variations in human performance that have been identified previously (Smith et al. 2003) and extend those findings by implicating right-hemisphere mediated arousal in the process (Arruda et al. 1996, 1999, 2007). Significant cyclic variations in left-hemisphere beta-wave activity were not observed. Taken together, the findings of the present investigation support a model of sustained attention that predicts cyclic changes in human performance that are the result of cyclic changes in right-hemisphere arousal.

A quantitative electroencephalographic correlate of sustained attention processing.

The objective of the present investigation was to develop a quantitative electroencephalographic measure (qEEG) that is sensitive and specific to changes in sustained human performance. A principal components analysis (PCA) was performed on the qEEG obtained from participants during a continuous performance test. Measures of sensitivity (proportion of correctly identified correct responses, or hits) and specificity (proportion of correctly identified incorrect responses, or misses) were calculated to assess the classification accuracy of each newly derived component. PCA solutions produced a right hemisphere component comprised of beta-wave activity measured from four unipolar sites (F8, C6a, C6, and T4) that appeared to be sensitive and specific to changes in human performance. Results provide evidence for the validity of a right hemisphere qEEG measure that is sensitive and specific to changes in sustained human performance. Consistent with the findings of previous research, the present findings implicate the right cerebral hemisphere in the sustained attention process.

Effects of flash mode and intensity on P2 component latency and amplitude.

UNLABELLED: Alzheimer's disease (AD) groups manifest flash visual-evoked potential (VEP) P2 component delays compared to healthy control groups. However, using P2 latency to categorize individual patients and controls yields low accuracy. Additionally, several laboratories have failed to replicate the basic between group P2 latency findings. The sporadic failure to find the P2 delay and, when found, its failure to classify patients and controls accurately may reflect the use of non-optimal stimuli or recording sites. OBJECTIVE: This was a parametric investigation of stimulation and recording methods in healthy college students. METHOD: Using an extended recording montage of 64 electrodes, 10 stimulus conditions (5 flash intensities through open and closed eyes) were evaluated for their P2 effects. RESULT: The optimal recording site (O2) yielded the most reliable latencies and amplitudes across a range of stimulus intensities. Flash intensity did not affect P2 latency or amplitude. Flashes delivered through closed eyelids produced a flash VEP but delivery through open eyes produced a pattern VEP lacking a flash P2 component. CONCLUSION: This accounts for the failure of some laboratories using open eyes to replicate the P2 delay in AD groups. SIGNIFICANCE: Optimal flash VEP conditions include closed eyes and recording from O2. Flash intensity is unimportant.

Diagnostic utility of visual evoked potential changes in Alzheimer's disease.

Previous studies have consistently found a selective delay of the P2 flash visual evoked potential (VEP) component among groups of patients with Alzheimer's dementia (AD) compared with control groups. Several authors have termed the selective P2 delay a "marker" for AD and have called for its use in clinical diagnosis. This study examined the diagnostic utility of the selective P2 delay in a retrospective sample of 45 AD patients and 60 age-equivalent healthy control subjects. Although significant between-group differences were found, classification accuracies for individual patients and controls were too low for the P2 delay to contribute meaningfully to clinical diagnosis.